Timothy Wilson on his book Redirect

The Five Factor Model of Personality and Personality Disorders

How does the Five Factor Model of Personality relate to categories of personality disorders?



Five-Factor Model and Personality Disorder

The Five-Factor Model of Personality Disorder

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3811085/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28125251

White Liberals Present Themselves as Less Competent in Interactions with African-Americans

White Liberals Present Themselves as Less Competent in Interactions with African-Americans

8 Mind-Bending Optical Illusions (And What They Reveal About How Our Brains Work)

8 Mind-Bending Optical Illusions (And What They Reveal About How Our Brains Work)

Hypnotic Susceptibility

Wikipedia: Hypnotic Susceptibility

Parenting Style Influences Shyness in Children

https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/parenting-style-influences-child-shyness/amp/

How to tell a story

https://www.scienceofpeople.com/how-to-tell-a-story/

Personality Disorders

Introduction to Personality Disorders

The 10 personality disorders mentioned in the DSM-5 involve pervasive and enduring personality styles that differ from cultural expectations and cause distress and/or conflict with others.

Defining Personality Disorders

According to the DSM-5, “personality disorder” refers to when an individual displays a personality style (i.e., patterns of cognition, behavior, and emotion) that:

1. differs significantly from the norms and expectations of their culture in two or more of the following areas: cognition, affect, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control;
2. causes them and/or others around them “clinically significant” distress and impairment in important areas of functioning;
3. is pervasive (i.e., applies across many contexts, such as school, work, and home) and enduring (i.e., has been exhibited over a long duration of time, since at least adolescence or early adulthood); and
4. cannot be better explained by another mental disorder or be due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or general medical condition (e.g., head trauma).

The patterns found in personality disorders develop early and are inflexible. Someone diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotion, impulse control, and interpersonal functioning. That said, though personality disorders are typically associated with significant distress or disability, they are also ego-syntonic, which means that individuals do not feel as though their values, thoughts, and behaviors are out of place or unacceptable. In other words, their thoughts and behaviors are consistent with their own ideal self-image.

The DSM-5: Grouping Personality Disorders

To be fully diagnosed, an individual must meet both the DSM-5’s general diagnostic criteria for a personality disorder (provided above) as well as the criteria for a specific disorder.

The DSM-5 lists ten different personality disorders, grouped into three clusters based on common features. Personality disorders are often researched within these clusters, since the disorders in a cluster exhibit many common disturbances.

Cluster A (odd and eccentric)

• Paranoid personality disorder: Characterized by a pattern of irrational suspicion and mistrust of others and the interpretation of motivations as malevolent. The person is guarded, defensive, distrustful, suspicious, and always looking for evidence to confirm hidden plots and schemes.
• Schizoid personality disorder: Characterized by a lack of interest and detachment from social relationships, and restricted emotional expression. The individual is apathetic, indifferent, remote, solitary, distant, and humorless. They neither desire, nor need, human attachments, and withdraw from relationships and prefer to be alone.
• Schizotypal personality disorder: Characterized by a pattern of extreme discomfort interacting socially, and distorted cognitions and perceptions. One is eccentric, self-estranged, bizarre, absent, and exhibits magical thinking and strange beliefs.

Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic)

• Antisocial personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others, rooted in a lack of empathy. The person is impulsive, irresponsible, unruly, inconsiderate, and sometimes violent. They comply with social obligations only when they see personal benefit.
• Borderline personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of instability in relationships, self-image, identity, behavior, and affect, often leading to self-harm and impulsivity. One is unpredictable, manipulative, unstable, and frantically fears abandonment and isolation. One shifts rapidly between loving and hating.
• Histrionic personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of attention-seeking behavior and excessive emotions. One is dramatic, seductive, shallow, stimulus-seeking, and vain. One overreacts to minor events and is exhibitionistic.
• Narcissistic personality disorder: A pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.

Cluster C (anxious or fearful)

• Avoidant personality disorder: Pervasive feelings of social inhibition and inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation. One is hesitant, self-conscious, embarrassed, anxious, and sees self as inept, inferior, or unappealing.
• Dependent personality disorder: A pervasive psychological need to be cared for by other people. One is helpless, incompetent, submissive, immature, and sees self as weak or fragile.
• Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Characterized by a rigid conformity to rules, perfectionism, and control. One maintains a rule-bound lifestyle, adheres closely to social conventions, sees the world in terms of regulations and hierarchies, and often follows directions and rules to the point of missing the purpose of the task.

Lumen: Intro to Psychology: Personality Disorders

Psychodynamic & Neo-Freudian Theorists

I. Psychodynamic/Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939, was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.(1)

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg ([link]). He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access (Freud, 1923). According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression. For example, we sometimes say things that we don’t intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You’ve probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common. Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning (Motley, 2002).

According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal (socialized) control over these drives. Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces. Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting systems within our minds. He called them the id, ego, and superego ([link]).

ID, SUPEREGO, EGO

The unconscious id contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. Freud believed that the id operates on what he called the “pleasure principle,” in which the id seeks immediate gratification. 

Through social interactions with parents and others in a child’s environment, the ego and superego develop to help control the id. The superegodevelops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings of guilt. 

In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the ego is the rational part of our personality. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the “reality principle.” The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.

The id and superego are in constant conflict, because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the ego’s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id’s desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Freud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego’s inability to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as defense mechanisms ([link]). When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause an individual anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. To do that, the individual’s unconscious mind uses ego defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.

Defense Mechanisms include:

Denial

Displacement

Projection

Rationalization

Reaction Formation

Regression

Repression

Sublimation

While everyone uses defense mechanisms, Freud believed that overuse of them may be problematic.

STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood: Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults.

In each psychosexual stage of development, the child’s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are:

Oral 

Anal

Phallic

Latency

Genital.

II. Neo-Freudians

Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. Four notable neo-Freudians include Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung (pronounced “Yoong”), and Karen Horney (pronounced “HORN-eye”).(3)

ALFRED ADLER

Adler founded a school of psychology called individual psychology, which focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler (1937, 1956) proposed the concept of the inferiority complex. An inferiority complex refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler’s ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud’s. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler (1930, 1961) believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.(3)

ERIK ERIKSON

Erikson proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan—a departure from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on sex. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which represents a conflict or developmental task  ([link]).(3)

CARL JUNG

Carl Jung ([link]) was a Swiss psychiatrist and protégé of Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own theory, which he called analytical psychology. The focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one’s personality. According to Jung, this work is a continuous learning process—mainly occurring in the second half of life—of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness.

Jung’s split from Freud was based on two major disagreements. First, Jung, like Adler and Erikson, did not accept that sexual drive was the primary motivator in a person’s mental life. Second, although Jung agreed with Freud’s concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it to be incomplete. In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the collective unconscious.

The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us (Jung, 1928). These ancestral memories, which Jung called archetypes, are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams (Jung). Jung said that these themes reflect common experiences of people the world over, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. Jung (1964) believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same themes and that the same types of symbols—such as the hero, the maiden, the sage, and the trickster—are present in the folklore and fairy tales of every culture.

Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion and introversion (Jung, 1923) ([link]). These ideas are considered Jung’s most important contributions to the field of personality psychology, as almost all models of personality now include these concepts. If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others. If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity. Jung believed a balance between extroversion and introversion best served the goal of self-realization.

KAREN HORNEY

Like Jung, Horney believed that each individual has the potential for self-realization and that the goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self rather than exploring early childhood patterns of dysfunction.

Horney’s theories focused on the role of unconscious anxiety. She suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness and/or isolation. How do children learn to handle this anxiety? Horney suggested three styles of coping ([link]). The first coping style, moving toward people, relies on affiliation and dependence. These children become dependent on their parents and other caregivers in an effort to receive attention and affection, which provides relief from anxiety (Burger, 2008). When these children grow up, they tend to use this same coping strategy to deal with relationships, expressing an intense need for love and acceptance (Burger, 2008). The second coping style, moving against people, relies on aggression and assertiveness. Children with this coping style find that fighting is the best way to deal with an unhappy home situation, and they deal with their feelings of insecurity by bullying other children (Burger, 2008). As adults, people with this coping style tend to lash out with hurtful comments and exploit others (Burger, 2008). The third coping style, moving away from people, centers on detachment and isolation. These children handle their anxiety by withdrawing from the world. They need privacy and tend to be self-sufficient. When these children are adults, they continue to avoid such things as love and friendship, and they also tend to gravitate toward careers that require little interaction with others (Burger, 2008).

(1) Wikipedia: Sigmund Freud

(2) Lumen: Intro to Psychology: Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective

(3) Lumen: Intro to Psychology: Neo-Freudians

Psychology of Selfies

What Do #Selfies Say About The Psychology Of You?

Cliff-notes: 

-What does this say about what they are trying to achieve with their selfies, and ultimately, their real intentions? It quickly becomes clear that one thing many people are looking for via their selfies is a boost to their self esteem.-Every like, share and positive comment is a boost to their confidence, and this works to fuel the desire for more selfies.

- Selfies help people portray a version of themselves to the world.  It is a statement to the world. It allows people to stand out among the masses.

-There has been a recent trend of “no makeup selfies” calling participants to post pictures of themselves online without makeup as a way to call attention to cancer awareness. While many people got involved as a way to support a good cause, efforts such as these have another positive effect, in that they help people feel like they are a part of something. On an evolutionary level, this is important because being part of a group means safety and comfort.

Are Selfies a Sign of Narcissism and Psychopathy?

Cliff-notes:

-A new study appearing in an upcoming issue of Personality and Individual Differences examined the relationship between selfie-posting, photo-editing and personality...In this study, the authors examined self-objectification, along with three personality traits, known as the “Dark Triad”: narcissism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism.

-Narcissism: Extreme self-centeredness and a grandiose view of oneself. Narcissists have an excessive need to be admired by others and have a sense of entitlement. They’re likely to agree with statements like: “I’m more capable than most people,” and “I will usually show off if I get the chance.”

Psychopathy: Impulsivity and lack of empathy. Those high in psychopathy are likely to agree with statements like: “Payback needs to be quick and nasty."

Machiavellianism: Manipulative-ness without regard for others’ needs. Those high on this trait tend to have little concern about morals.

Self-objectification: This is a tendency to view your body as an object based on its sexual worth. Those high in self-objectification tend to see themselves in terms of their physical appearance and base their self-worth on their appearance.

-Results showed that both narcissism and self-objectification were associated with spending more time on social networking sites, and with more photo-editing. Posting numerous selfies was related to both higher narcissism and psychopathy, controlling for the overall number of other types of photos posted. Machiavellianism was unrelated to photo behavior when taking these other variables into account.

Obsessive Selfie-Taking

Cliff-notes:

-We empirically explored the concept of selfitis across two studies and collected data on the existence of selfitis with respect to the three alleged levels (borderline, acute, and chronic), and ultimately developed our own psychometric scale to assess the sub-components of selfitis (the 'Selfitis Behaviour Scale').

-Our study began by using focus group interviews with 225 young adults with an average age of 21 years old to gather an initial set of criteria that underlie selfitis. Example questions used during the focus group interviews included ‘What compels you to take selfies?’, ‘Do you feel addicted to taking selfies?’ and ‘Do you think that someone can become addicted to taking selfies?’ It was during these interviews that participants confirmed there appeared to be individuals who obsessively take selfies —or, in other words, that selfitis does at least exist. But, since we did not collect any data on the negative psychosocial impacts, we cannot yet claim that the behavior is a mental disorder; negative consequences of the behavior is a key part of that determination.

-The six components of selfitis, tested on the further participants, were: environmental enhancement (taking selfies in specific locations to feel good and show off to others), social competition (taking selfies to get more ‘likes’ on social media), attention-seeking (taking selfies to gain attention from others), mood modification (taking selfies to feel better), self-confidence (taking selfies to feel more positive about oneself), and subjective conformity (taking selfies to fit in with one’s social group and peers).

-Our findings showed that those with chronic selfitis were more likely to be motivated to take selfies due to attention-seeking, environmental enhancement and social competition. The results suggest that people with chronic levels of selfitis are seeking to fit in with those around them, and may display symptoms similar to other potentially addictive behaviors. Other studies have also suggested that a minority of individuals might have a ‘selfie addiction.’ (See ‘References and further reading’ below.)

Self Defense - Australia

Gun Laws in Australia
Gun laws in Australia are mainly the jurisdiction of Australian states and territories, but were largely aligned in 1996 by the National Firearms Agreement.

A person must have a firearm licence to possess or use a firearm. Licence holders must demonstrate a "genuine reason" (which does not include self-defence) for holding a firearm licence and must not be a "prohibited person".(1)

Other weapons

Laws concerning other weapons vary depending on the states and territories but generally speaking, it is illegal to purchase, carry or use ANYTHING specifically intended for self defence. Hence, even items like pepper spray, tasers and stun guns are illegal.(2) Regarding pepper spray, there looks to be one exception. While it's illegal to bring it into Australia, with import permits only issued for police or government use, Western Australia is the one state where it's legal to carry pepper spray. There it is considered a' controlled weapon' similar to crossbows and swords. As such, it can be carried if you have reasonable grounds to do so. Unfortunately, determining what reasonable grounds are is ambiguous.(4)

Self Defense

The approach generally adopted in Australia differs significantly from the “stand your ground” approach to self-defence that has been influential in the US. “Stand your ground” generally encourages “self-help” by removing any requirement of retreat. It permits a person who is threatened or attacked to stand their ground and claim self-defence even where an avenue of retreat or other means of avoiding the conflict was safely available.

Approaches to self-defence in Australia still tend to emphasise reasonable necessity and discourage vigilantism. Police advise Australian homeowners against keeping weapons for protection and instruct them to immediately contact police if they suspect an intruder is in their home.(3)

(1) Gun laws in Australia

(2) Quora: What are some examples of legal self-defence weapons in Australia?
(3) How far can you go to lawfully protect yourself in a home invasion?

(4) The one place in Australia where it's legal to have pepper spray for self-defence

The Daily Telegraph: n assault on our right to self-protection

Karpman drama triangle

Karpman drama triangle

Women have substantial advantage in STEM faculty hiring, except when competing against more-accomplished men

Women have substantial advantage in STEM faculty hiring, except when competing against more-accomplished men

Racial Stereotypes, Racial Interactions, Impression Management

From the Psychology Today article below:

"Some newly published research by Hilary Bergsieker, Nicole Shelton, and Jennifer Richeson in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology helps shed light on this issue. The researchers note that the stereotype of whites is that they are prejudiced, intolerant, and callous. When people are threatened that they are going to be seen this way, they step up their efforts to seem likeable. They nod their heads, they make self-deprecating comments, they note areas of agreement, they may smile a little too much. Of course, not everybody does this, but the point is that generally speaking, when whites interact across the racial divide, they are particularly likely to worry about the stereotype of being seen as bigots, so they compensate by trying to be super nice.
This seems like a good strategy. However, on the other side of that racial divide, someone else is dealing with their own painful stereotype: the stereotype of being seen as unintelligent and incompetent. African Americans and Latino/as are all too familiar with this stereotype, which lends credence to the idea that stigmatized minorities have to work twice as hard just to be seen or treated as equals. The implication of this stereotype, according to the researchers, is that one is not as likely to adopt a goal of being likeable as much as a goal of inspiring respect. It makes sense-- if you are worried about being pigeonholed as incompetent, you then focus on signaling your achievements, on being a little more serious, on holding a little bit of a straighter posture.
As it turns out, these divergent goals are especially toxic together during interracial interactions. Think about it: if you are working hard to be liked, and the other person is not cracking a smile and not reciprocating to your overtures, your goals are not being met. Similarly, if you are working hard to be respected, and the other person is instead being smiley and gooey with you, your goals are not being met. In other words, the motive to be liked leads to behaviors that are interpreted as disrespectful, and the motive to be respected leads to behaviors that are interpreted as unfriendly!"

Psychology Today: Racism against whites: What's the problem?

To Be Liked Versus Respected: Divergent Goals in Interracial Interactions

20/20 Show on Ralph Raines and the Psychology of Romance Scams

Psychology of scams: The emotional traps to watch out for

How People Are Scammed Again and Again

I Love You Mr. Bubbs

I don't know why I thought this was so funny

"for is it not the case that we live in an age of emotional incontinence, when they who emote the most are believed to feel the most?"

Theodore Dalrymple

Charles Krauthammer quote

To understand the workings of American politics, you have to understand this fundamental law: Conservatives think liberals are stupid. Liberals think conservatives are evil.

Charles Krauthammer

Whirlwind at concert

Wrapper, Binder, Filler

Wrapper
A cigar's outermost layer, or wrapper (Spanish: capa), is generally the most expensive component of a cigar. The wrapper determines much of the cigar's character and flavor, and as such its color is often used to describe the cigar as a whole. Wrappers are frequently grown underneath huge canopies made of gauze so as to diffuse direct sunlight and are fermented separately from other rougher cigar components, with a view to the production of a thinly-veined, smooth, supple leaf.

Wrapper tobacco produced without the gauze canopies under which "shade grown" leaf is grown, generally more coarse in texture and stronger in flavor, is commonly known as "sun grown." A number of different countries are used for the production of wrapper tobacco, including Cuba, Ecuador, Indonesia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Brazil, Mexico, Cameroon, and the United States.

While dozens of minor wrapper shades have been touted by manufacturers, the seven most common classifications are as follows, ranging from lightest to darkest:

• Double Claro (Candela): very light, slightly greenish. Achieved by picking leaves before maturity and drying quickly, the color coming from retained green chlorophyll.
• Claro (Connecticut): very light tan or yellowish brown.
• Colorado Claro: medium brown
• Colorado: reddish-brown
• Colorado Maduro: dark brown
• Maduro: very dark brown
• Oscuro: blackish brown

In general, dark wrappers add a touch of sweetness, while light ones add a hint of dryness to the taste.

Binder
The binder is the tobacco leaf (or leaves) that hold together the filler tobacco. The combination of a binder (known as a banda in Spanish) and filler tobacco is known as the the bunch. Many binders were grown with the intent of being wrappers, but defects in the leaf caused them to be graded as binders, which are considerably less expensive than wrappers. Though the binder is generally the lowest grade tobacco within a cigar, many of today's top blenders have been using wrapper-quality leaves to add more levels of flavor, strength and complexity to their blends. To achieve this, a unique leaf is used that varies from the rest of the blend.

Filler
The bulk of a cigar is "filler" — a bound bunch of tobacco leaves. These leaves are folded by hand to allow air passageways down the length of the cigar, through which smoke is drawn after the cigar is lit. A cigar rolled with insufficient air passage is referred to by a smoker as "too tight"; one with excessive airflow creating an excessively fast, hot burn is regarded as "too loose." Considerable skill and dexterity on the part of the cigar roller is needed to avoid these opposing pitfalls — a primary factor in the superiority of hand-rolled cigars over their machine-made counterparts.

By blending various varieties of filler tobacco, cigar makers create distinctive strength, odor, and flavor profiles for their various branded products. In general, fatter cigars hold more filler leaves, allowing a greater potential for the creation of complex flavors. In addition to the variety of tobacco employed, the country of origin can be one important determinant of taste, with different growing environments producing distinctive flavors.

Long Filler
Most premium cigars are composed of long-filler tobacco, bound by the binder and subsequently wrapper with the wrapper leaf. Long-filler tobacco are whole tobacco leaves that run the entire length of the cigar. They vary in length and may also dictate cigar length accordingly. Long-filler cigars are of a higher quality than short-filler cigars; they burn for a longer period of time and tend to smoke much cooler and smoother.

Short Filler
Contrary to using whole leaves, short-filler cigars are made from is chopped tobacco - trimmings, choppings, and other tobacco plant and leaf parts - which is then rolled into cigars. Machine-made cigars are primarily made from short-filler tobacco and generally burn faster and somewhat hotter than a premium, long-filler cigar. The faster burn and hotter smoke is a result of more air present between the pieces of tobacco, which may also produce harsh, burnt tobacco flavor, unlike the complex flavors that long-filler cigars produce. Naturally, machine-made, short-filler cigars cost less to manufacture compared with hand-made, long-filler cigars, and there lies the difference in quality.

Mixed (Medium) FillerCigars made from mixed-filler tobacco are made of short-filler tobacco rolled inside of long-filler leaves, then wrapped with the binder and wrapper. These cigars are common referred to as a "sandwich" or a "Cuban sandwich", but are still a step down in terms of quality compared with long-filler cigars.

Wikipedia: Cigar
Smokeasy
Cigar Aficionado: Glossary
Cigars International: Blending Cigars Part I

Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Summary Videos)

Nature fakers controversy

Wikipedia: Nature Fakers Controversy 

Thomas Sowell - A Conflict of Visions - Animated Book Review

Exploring Psychic Powers LIVE!!! [1989]

Exploring Psychic Powers LIVE!!! [1989]

Article: Diamonds Are Bullshit

Priceonomics: Diamonds Are Bullshit

Parts of a Cigars

Parts of a Cigar

Cap: The cap is the rounded portion where you would cut the cigar to smoke it.

Head: If we hold the cigar with the head downwards, the head is the upper third.

Body: If we hold the cigar with the head downwards, the body is the third in the middle.

Foot: If we hold the cigar with the head downwards, the foot is the lower third.

Barril: The barril itself is a cigar, comprised of three parts: head, body and foot.

Caliber: Refers to the thickness of a cigar or the ring of the cigar.

Tuck: The “open” part of a cigar which you light to smoke.

Wrapper: The wrapper is the outer sheet of a cigar, it is the part we see. The wrapper influences the aesthetics of a cigar so that it has a good finish.

Binder: The binder is the first sheet that surrounds the filler. It is located between the wrapper and the filler.

Filler: The inner and most important part of the cigar. From the mix of leaves that form the filler is what depends the flavor and aroma of the cigar.

Spinning Dancer Illusion

"The Spinning Dancer, also known as the silhouette illusion, is a kinetic, bistable optical illusion resembling a pirouetting female dancer. The illusion, created in 2003 by web designer Nobuyuki Kayahara,involves the apparent direction of motion of the figure. Some observers initially see the figure as spinning clockwise (viewed from above) and some counterclockwise. Additionally, some may see the figure suddenly spin in the opposite direction."

Wikipedia: Spinning Dancer

Feminist Perspectives on the Family

ReviseSociology: Feminist Perspectives on the Family

A “blasphemy killing” at a university shocks Pakistan

Economist: A “blasphemy killing” at a university shocks Pakistan

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative States
In psychology, the term dissociation describes a wide array of experiences from mild detachment from immediate surroundings to more severe detachment from physical and emotional experience. Dissociation occurs on a continuum—at the nonpathological end of the continuum, dissociation describes common events such as daydreaming while driving a vehicle. Further along the continuum are non- pathological altered states of consciousness. More pathological dissociation involves dissociative disorders.

Most individuals have experienced a dissociative state at some point in their lives. Consider if you are talking to a friend and suddenly you realize that you blanked out and missed half the conversation; or consider if you’ve been driving somewhere familiar, and you realize halfway through the drive that you weren’t fully paying attention but were instead on “auto-pilot.” These are both examples of dissociation. Dissociation of this sort is fairly normal from time to time; however, there are five types of dissociative disorders which are considered psychopathological: dissociative identity disorder, disociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, other specified dissociative disorder, and unspecified dissociative disorder.

-Dissociative Identity Disorder
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a rare mental disorder characterized by at least two distinct and relatively enduring identities or dissociated personality states that recurrently control a person’s behavior; it is accompanied by memory impairment for important information not explained by ordinary forgetfulness. Amnesia in DID is understood to mean amnesia between two or more of the distinct identities; the host alter will experience “losing time” in the present another alter takes the place of the one the host alter. Rarely is the host alter aware of their time loss. Each of the distinct identities or personalities has its own way of perceiving, thinking about, and relating to itself and the environment.

Previously known as multiple personality disorder, DID became popularized in 1974 with the publication of the highly influential book (and later miniseries) Sybil. Describing what Robert Rieber called “the third most famous of multiple personality cases”, it presented a detailed discussion of the problems of treatment of “Sybil”, a pseudonym for Shirley Ardell Mason. Though the book and subsequent films helped popularize the diagnosis and trigger an epidemic of the diagnosis, later analysis of the case argue that Sybil may not have actually had DID.

-Dissociative Amnesia
Amnesia refers to the partial or total forgetting of some experience or event. An individual with dissociative amnesia is unable to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience such as combat, natural disasters, or being the victim of violence. Some individuals with dissociative amnesia will also experience dissociative fugue (from the word “to flee” in French), whereby they suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their identity, and sometimes even adopt a new identity (Cardeña & Gleaves, 2006). Most fugue episodes last only a few hours or days, but some can last longer.

-Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
Depersonalization is defined as feelings of “unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, one’s whole self or from aspects of the self” (APA, 2013, p. 302). Individuals who experience depersonalization might believe their thoughts and feelings are not their own; they may feel robotic, as though they lack control over their movements and speech; they may experience a distorted sense of time; and, in extreme cases, they may sense an “out-of-body” experience in which they see themselves from the vantage point of another person. Derealization is conceptualized as a sense of “unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world, be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings” (APA, 2013, p. 303). A person who experiences derealization might feel as though they are in a fog or a dream or that the surrounding world is somehow artificial and unreal. An episode of depersonalization/derealization disorder can be as brief as a few seconds or continue for several years.

-Other Specified Dissociative Disorder and Unspecified Dissociative Disorder
The old category of dissociative disorder not otherwise specified is now split into two according to the DSM-5 (2013): other specified dissociative disorder and unspecified dissociative disorder. These categories are used for forms of pathological dissociation that do not fully meet the criteria of the other dissociative disorders, or if the correct category has not been determined. Other specified dissociative disorder covers a variety of different presentation, including some symptoms similar to DID but not matching the distinct criteria. Unspecified dissociative disorder is often used in an emergency room setting where there is insufficient information to make a diagnosis.

Boundless Psychology: Dissociative Disorders

Free Will versus the Programmed Brain

Scientific American: Free Will versus the Programmed Brain


"On the other hand, the results fit with what some philosophers had predicted. The Western conception idea of free will seems bound up with our sense of moral responsibility, guilt for misdeeds and pride in accomplishment. We hold ourselves responsible precisely when we think that our actions come from free will. In this light, it’s not surprising that people behave less morally as they become skeptical of free will. Further, the Vohs and Schooler result fits with the idea that people will behave less responsibly if they regard their actions as beyond their control. If I think that there’s no point in trying to be good, then I’m less likely to try."

Stossel: Left's War on Science

Clearly there are those on both the right and the left who have ideological beliefs which can be anti-science, but as this video points out, the general narrative is that the left is pro-science.

Christie Blatchford: Unlike Canada, U.K. has learned sex assault 'victims' aren't always victims

Christie Blatchford: Unlike Canada, U.K. has learned sex assault 'victims' aren't always victims

Jerry Seinfeld - Awards are Stupid

Cognitive Psychology: Introduction

Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking".(1) Fundamentally, cognitive psychology studies how people acquire and apply knowledge or information. It is closely related to the highly interdisciplinary cognitive science and influenced by artificial intelligence, computer science, philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, biology, physics, and neuroscience.(2)

Cognitive psychology is based on two assumptions: 1) Human cognition can at least in principle be fully revealed by the scientific method, that is, individual components of mental processes can be identified and understood, and 2) Internal mental processes can be described in terms of rules or algorithms in information processing models. There has been much recent debate on these assumptions.(2)

Information Processing Approach

The information processing approach, unlike the stimulus-response model of behaviorism, looks at how input is transformed into output. In other words, what happens between sensation and behavior is a more important question for cognitive psychologists than just which sensation produced which behavior. Cognitive Psychology treats the sensation as bits of information which are subjected to various processes in the mind and ultimately behavior may or may not result from this.(3)

Though the cognitive approach began in the late 1950's it was the arrival of the computer that gave cognitive psychology the terminology and metaphor it needed to investigate the human mind. The start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with something simpler and better understood, i.e., an artificial system such as a computer. The use of the computer as a tool for thinking how the human mind handles information is known as the computer analogy. Essentially, a computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses information, and produces an output (retrieves info). The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.(4)

The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions, including:

1. Information made available from the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g., attention, perception, short-term memory);
2. These processing systems transform, or alter the information in systematic ways;
3. The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance;
4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.(4)

Mediational Processes
The behaviorists approach only studies external observable (stimulus and response) behavior which can be objectively measured. They believe that internal behavior cannot be studied because we cannot see what happens in a person’s mind (and therefore cannot objectively measure it).

In comparison, the cognitive approach believes that internal mental behavior can be scientifically studied using experiments. Cognitive psychology assumes that a mediational process occurs between stimulus/input and response/output.(4)

The mediational (i.e., mental) event could be memory, perception, attention or problem solving, etc. These are known as mediational processes because they mediate (i.e., go-between) between the stimulus and the response. They come after the stimulus and before the response.
History of Cognitive Psychology

• Norbert Wiener (1948) published Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, introducing terms such as input and output.
• Tolman (1948) work on cognitive maps – training rats in mazes, showed that animals had an internal representation of behavior.
• Birth of Cognitive Psychology often dated back to George Miller’s (1956) “The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2.”
• Newell and Simon’s (1972) development of the General Problem Solver.
• In 1960, Miller founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard with famous cognitivist developmentalist, Jerome Bruner.
• Ulric Neisser (1967) publishes "Cognitive Psychology", which marks the official beginning of the cognitive approach.
• Process models of memory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi Store Model.

(1) American Psychological Association: Glossary of Psychological Terms
(2) Scholarpedia: Cognitive psychology
(3) Zeepedia: Cognitive Psychology (2nd Link)
(4) Simplepsychology: Cognitive Psychology
(5) Wikibooks: Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience

https://mechanism.ucsd.edu/teaching/w07/philpsych/smith.cogpsychhistory.pdf

Fruits and vegetables, before and after cultivation

Washington Post: Fruits and vegetables used to look so different you might not even recognize them

Derren Brown & Michael Shermer

Notes:
@27:38 Brown summarizes a major aspect of stoicism stating
"one of the big the big building blocks of stoicism is this familiar idea now of you know, it's not things in the world that cause our problems but it's those stories we tell ourselves about those things"

@38:41 When talking about happiness vs pleasure Brown says
"because that's the difference isn't it between a pleasurable thing in the moment you know if you have the choice between going on a roller coaster, I think Daniel Kahneman used this example, going on a roller coaster with your friends versus looking after a sick relative, you probably have more pleasure on a roller coaster but afterwards when you think about what you've done with your day you might be happy with the fact that you chose to look after the sick relative because the story that you're telling yourself about who you are and the choice that you made are more conducive to happiness"

Concept Creep

Heterodox Academy: The Most Dangerous Creep On Campus

Victims, Victims Everywhere: Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Academic Freedoms

Bret Weinstein and Heather Heying makes some intriguing points:

@16:11
(Bret) yeah can I synthesize several things that have come up that are really at least are the same thing? So we have all experienced the kind of, what seems like an insane deafness to transparently obvious realities and it's very bewildering to hear people denying things that are just simply factual and could be tested in this room if we wanted to bother. But this also reflects the failure of, as Heather was pointing out, the lack of outdoor play for example. The thing about play outdoor is it teaches you when you're confused. If you're confused then you fall rather than make the leap that you think you're going to make and so you end up with pain which then gets pondered and you realize that there's something in error in your thought process.
And so by eliminating this kind of outdoor play what we do is we decide that all reality is abstract and that all reality being abstract it's very easy to go down some road where, wouldn't it be nice if we could say males and females are the same, therefore anything that turns out uneven as the result of some broken process that we should then seek to fix. The problem is that doesn't map to reality and the, I think what is actually taking place and it is surprisingly postmodern, is that there is this sort of abandonment of obligation to reality itself almost as if the people who are engaged in it don't believe that reality is a thing. And I would just submit to you that it is much more likely that that idea will take hold in an era where so much is done online, where you don't end up with a skinned knee because you were confused.
(Heather) yeah, prediction people who spent a lot of time hiking or playing sports or doing anything with their hands where they've created something at the end of the day, and they've got a chair that functions or there on the floor, are less likely to buy into the idea that reality is a social construct. If you are engaging with the physical world you know that there's a reality out there that abides by what you do or doesn't. Whereas if you're mostly engaged in the social world, it's much easier to delude yourself into imagining that maybe reality is a construct because social reality is.

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
PTSD is a disorder that develops after exposure to a traumatic event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury.

In psychology, trauma is a type of damage to the psyche that occurs as a result of a severely distressing event. Trauma is often the result of an overwhelming amount of stress that exceeds one’s ability to cope or integrate the emotions involved with that experience. A traumatic event can involve one experience or repeated events or experiences over time.

Traumatizing, stressful events can have a long-term impact on mental and physical health. Situations where an individual is exposed to a severely stressful experience involving threat of death, injury, or sexual violence can result in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). With this disorder, the trauma experienced is severe enough to cause stress responses for months or even years after the initial incident. The trauma overwhelms the victim’s ability to cope psychologically, and memories of the event trigger anxiety and physical stress responses, including the release of cortisol. People with PTSD may experience flashbacks, panic attacks and anxiety, and hypervigilance (extreme attunement to stimuli that remind them of the initial incident).


DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
To be diagnosed with PTSD according to the DSM-5 (2013), a person must first have been exposed to a traumatic event that involves a loss of physical integrity, or risk of serious injury or death, to self or others. In addition, the person must experience intrusions (persistent re-experiencing of the event through flashbacks, distressing dreams, etc.); avoidance (of stimuli associated with the trauma, talking about the trauma, etc.); negative alterations in cognitions and mood (such as decreased capacity to feel certain feelings or distorted self-blame); and alterations in arousal and reactivity (such as difficulty sleeping, problems with anger or concentration, reckless behavior, or heightened startle response). These symptoms must last for more than 1 month and result in clinically significant distress or impairment in multiple domains of life, such as relationships, work, or other daily functioning.

Not everyone who experiences trauma will develop PTSD: according to the National Center for PTSD, approximately 20% of women and 8% of men who experience a traumatic event will develop PTSD. Rates of PTSD are higher in combat veterans than than the average rate for men, with a rate estimated at up to 20% for veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan.

Treatment
A number of psychotherapies have demonstrated usefulness in the treatment of PTSD and other trauma-related problems. Basic counseling practices common to many treatment responses for PTSD include education about the condition and provision of safety and support. The psychotherapy programs with the strongest demonstrated efficacy include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), variants of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training (SIT), variants of cognitive therapy (CT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and many combinations of these procedures.

Reactive Attachment Disorder

Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is described in clinical literature as a severe and relatively uncommon disorder that can affect children. RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in most contexts.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
In order to be diagnosed with RAD under the DSM-5 criteria, a child under the age of 5 must:

• exhibit emotionally withdrawn and inhibited behaviors in relation to their caregivers (for example, not seeking comfort when they are sad or upset);
• exhibit some kind of emotional or social disturbance (for example, limited responsiveness, lack of positive affect, inexplicable instances of irritability or sadness, etc.); and
• have a history of significant neglect and/or unstable living situations in which they were unable to form stable and secure attachments.

Lumen: Boundless Psychology

Voltaire Quote

It is dangerous to be right in matters on which the established authorities are wrong. – Voltaire

Faces Of Africa - Idi Amin: Famous For the Wrong Reasons

Tanzania’s rogue president

"Since coming to power in the country of 55m on the east coast of Africa in 2015, Mr Magufuli, nicknamed “the bulldozer” from his time as roads minister, has bashed foreign-owned businesses with impossible tax demands, ordered pregnant girls to be kicked out of school, shut down newspapers and locked up “immoral” musicians who criticise him. A journalist and opposition party members have disappeared, political rallies have been banned and mutilated bodies have washed up on the shores of Coco Beach in Dar es Salaam, the commercial capital. Mr Magufuli is fast transforming Tanzania from a flawed democracy into one of Africa’s more brutal dictatorships. It is a lesson in how easily weak institutions can be hijacked and how quickly democratic progress can be undone."

Economist: Tanzania’s rogue president

Brazil Has Nearly 60,000 Murders, And It May Relax Gun Laws

NPR: Brazil Has Nearly 60,000 Murders, And It May Relax Gun Laws

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) that produce uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry, and by repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing the associated anxiety. People with OCD may have just the obsessions or a combination of obsessions and compulsions.

Obsessions are characterized as persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing (APA, 2013). Common obsessions include concerns about germs and contamination, doubts (“Did I turn the water off?”), order and symmetry (“I need all the spoons in the tray to be arranged a certain way”), and urges that are aggressive or lustful. Usually, the person knows that such thoughts and urges are irrational and thus tries to suppress or ignore them, but has an extremely difficult time doing so.

Compulsions are ritualistic behaviors that an individual performs in order to mitigate the anxiety that stems from obsessive thoughts. They often include such behaviors as repeated and extensive hand washing, cleaning, checking (e.g., making sure the oven is off), counting things, hoarding, or ordering (e.g., lining up all the pencils in a particular way). They may also include such mental acts as counting, praying, or reciting something to oneself, as well as nervous rituals like touching a doorknob or opening and closing a door a certain number of times before leaving a room. These compulsions can be alienating and time-consuming, often causing severe emotional, interpersonal, and even financial distress. The ability to relieve their stress is often temporary, and individuals may have a hard time switching from one task to another.

The acts of those who have OCD may appear paranoid and potentially psychotic, or disconnected from reality; however, OCD sufferers generally recognize their obsessions and compulsions as irrational. Roughly one-third to one-half of adults with OCD report a childhood onset of the disorder.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
To be diagnosed with OCD, a person must experience obsessions, compulsions, or both. Such obsessions must be to a degree that lies outside the normal range of worries about conventional problems. A person will tend to recognize the obsessions as idiosyncratic or irrational, but still must perform them. Additionally, the degree of obsessions and compulsions must impair some aspect of the individual’s social, occupational, or daily life functioning.

Other Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors. Included in this category are body dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania, and excoriation disorder.

1. Body Dysmorphic Disorder
An individual with body dysmorphic disorder is preoccupied with a perceived flaw in their physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people (APA, 2013). These perceived physical defects cause the person to think they are unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed. These preoccupations can focus on any bodily area, but they typically involve the skin, face, or hair. The preoccupation with imagined physical flaws drives the person to engage in repetitive and ritualistic behavioral and mental acts, such as constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others, and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic surgery (Phillips, 2005). Severely impairing quality of life, body dysmorphic disorder can lead to social isolation and involves especially high rates of suicidal ideation. An estimated 2.4% of the adults in the United States meet the criteria for body dysmorphic disorder, with slightly higher rates in women than in men (APA, 2013).
2. Hoarding Disorder
Hoarding disorder is a pattern of behavior that is characterized by excessive acquisition and an inability or unwillingness to discard large quantities of objects that cover the living areas of the home and cause significant distress or impairment. Compulsive hoarding behavior has been associated with health risks, impaired functioning, economic burden, and adverse effects on friends and family members. When clinically significant enough to impair functioning, hoarding can prevent typical uses of space, enough so that it can limit activities such as cooking, cleaning, moving through the house, and sleeping. It could also potentially put the individual and others at risk of causing fires, falling, poor sanitation, and other health concerns. Compulsive hoarders may be conscious of their irrational behavior, but the emotional attachment to the hoarded objects far exceeds the motive to discard the items.

Prevalence rates have been estimated at 2-5% in adults, though the condition typically manifests in childhood with symptoms worsening in advanced age. Hoarding appears to be more common in people with psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, and attention -deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Trichotillomania
Trichotillomania (also known as trichotillosis or hair pulling disorder) is an obsessive compulsive disorder characterized by the compulsive urge to pull out one’s hair, leading to hair loss and balding, distress, and social or functional impairment. Trichotillomania may be present in infants, but the peak age of onset is 9 to 13. Owing to social implications the disorder is often unreported and it is difficult to accurately predict its prevalence; the lifetime prevalence is estimated to be between 0.6% and 4.0% of the overall population. Common areas for hair to be pulled out are the scalp, eyelashes, eyebrows, legs, arms, hands, nose and the pubic areas.

Excoriation Disorder
Excoriation disorder is an obsessive compulsive disorder characterized by the repeated urge to pick at one’s own skin, often to the extent that damage is caused. Episodes of skin picking are often preceded or accompanied by tension, anxiety, or stress. During these moments, there is commonly a compulsive urge to pick, squeeze, or scratch at a surface or region of the body, often at the location of a perceived skin defect. The region most commonly picked is the face, but other frequent locations include the arms, legs, back, gums, lips, shoulders, scalp, stomach, chest, and extremities such as the fingernails, cuticles, and toenails. Most patients with excoriation disorder report having a primary area of the body that they focus their picking on, but they will often move to other areas of the body to allow their primary picking area to heal.

Excoriation disorder can cause feeling of intense helplessness, guilt, shame, and embarrassment in individuals, and this greatly increases the risk of self-harm. Studies have shown that excoriation disorder presented suicidal ideation in 12% of individuals with this condition, suicide attempts in 11.5% of individuals with this condition, and psychiatric hospitalizations in 15% of individuals with this condition.

Lumen: Boundless Psychology: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

Heather Mac Donald: How Much More Delusional Can University Students Get?

Anxiety Disorders

Defining Anxiety
The difference between normal anxiety and an anxiety disorder is that anxiety disorders cause such severe distress as to interfere with someone’s ability to lead a normal life. “Anxiety disorder” refers to any of a number of specific disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, phobia, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and social anxiety disorder.

Anxiety disorders are defined by excessive worry, apprehension, and fear about future events or situations, either real or imagined. Specifically, symptoms may include:

• feelings of panic, fear, or uneasiness
• uncontrollable and obsessive thoughts
• flashbacks to traumatic events
• problems sleeping
• nightmares
• shortness of breath
• nausea
• muscle tension
• dizziness
• heart palpitations
• dry mouth
• cold or sweaty hands

Anxiety disorders are diagnosed in between 4% and 10% of older adults; however, this figure is likely an underestimate of the true incidence due to the tendency of adults to minimize psychiatric problems and to focus on physical symptoms.

Etiology
Anxiety in and of itself is not a bad thing. In fact, the hormonal response involved in anxiety evolved to help humans react to danger—it better prepares them to recognize threats and to act accordingly to ensure their safety. Such sensory information is processed by the amygdala, which communicates information about potential threats to the rest of the brain. However, anxiety becomes counterproductive and thus is deemed “disordered” when it is experienced with such intensity that it impedes social functioning.

Anxiety disorders develop as the result of the interaction of genetic (inherited) and environmental factors. Neurologically speaking, increased amygdala reactivity is correlated with increased fear and anxiety responses. Low levels of GABA (a neurotransmitter in the brain that reduces central nervous system activity) can contribute to anxiety, and serotonin, glutamate, and the 5-Ht2A receptor have also all been implicated in the development of anxiety disorders.

In addition to biological factors, anxiety disorders can also be caused by various life stresses, such as financial worries or chronic physical illness. Severe anxiety and depression can also be induced by sustained alcohol abuse; with prolonged sobriety these symptoms usually decrease. Even moderate sustained alcohol use may increase anxiety and depression levels in some individuals. Caffeine, alcohol, and benzodiazepine dependence can worsen or cause anxiety and panic attacks.

Treatment
Treatment options for anxiety disorders include lifestyle changes, therapy, and medication. The most common intervention is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which aims to help the person identify and challenge their negative thoughts (cognitions) and change their reactions to anxiety-provoking situations (behaviors).

In terms of medication, SSRIs are most commonly recommended. Benzodiazepines are also sometimes indicated for short-term or “as-needed” use. MAOIs such as phenelzine and tranylcypromine are also considered effective and are especially useful in treatment-resistant cases, but dietary restrictions and medical interactions may limit their use.

I. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by chronic anxiety that is excessive, uncontrollable, often irrational, and disproportionate to the actual object of concern. People with GAD often characterize it as a feeling of “free-floating anxiety”—a term that Sigmund Freud used in his early work. Typically, the anxiety has no definite trigger or starting point, and as soon as the individual resolves one issue or source of worry another worry arises. People with GAD also tend to catastrophize, meaning they may assume the absolute worst in anxiety-inducing situations. Racing thoughts, inability to concentrate, and inability to focus are also characteristic of GAD.

GAD is a particularly difficult disorder to live with; because the individual’s anxiety is not tied to a specific situation or event, they experience little relief. This disorder can contribute to problems with sleep, work, and daily responsibilities and often impacts close relationships.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
In order for GAD to be diagnosed, a person must experience excessive anxiety and worry—more days than not—for at least 6 months and about a number of events or activities (such as work or school performance). This excessive worry must interfere with some aspect of life, such as social, occupational, or daily functioning, and the person must have trouble controlling the anxiety. The disturbance must not be attributed to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug or medication) or another medical condition, and must not be better explained by another medical disorder. At least 3 of the following symptoms must be experienced: restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge; being easily fatigued; difficulty concentrating or mind going blank; irritability; muscle tension; and/or sleep disturbance.

Etiology
In any given year, approximately 2.3% of American adults and 2% of European adults experience GAD. Although there have been few investigations into the disorder’s heritability, a summary of available family and twin studies suggests that genetic factors play a moderate role in its development (Hettema et al., 2001). Specifically, about 30% of the variance for generalized anxiety disorder can been attributed to genes. Individuals with a genetic predisposition for GAD are more likely to develop the disorder, especially in response to a life stressor.

Cognitive theories of GAD suggest that worry represents a mental strategy to avoid more powerful negative emotions (Aikins & Craske, 2001), perhaps stemming from earlier unpleasant or traumatic experiences. Indeed, one longitudinal study found that childhood maltreatment was strongly related to the development of this disorder during adulthood (Moffitt et al., 2007). According to these theories, generalized anxiety may serve as a distraction from remembering painful childhood experiences.

Long-term use of benzodiazepines can worsen underlying anxiety, with evidence that reduction in benzodiazepine use can in turn lead to a lessening of anxiety symptoms. Similarly, long-term alcohol use is associated with the development of anxiety disorders, with evidence that prolonged abstinence can in turn result in the remission of anxiety symptoms.

Treatment
GAD is generally chronic, but it can be managed, or even eliminated, with the proper treatment. While there are many options for treating GAD, full recovery is only seen about 50% of the time, which indicates the need for further research into more effective treatment options.

Pharmaceutical treatments for GAD include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which are more commonly used as antidepressants. SSRIs block the reabsorption of serotonin in the brain so that it can keep activating serotonin receptors, improving the individual’s mood.

II. Panic Disorder and Panic Attacks

A panic attack is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. Its symptoms include accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying (APA, 2013). Sometimes panic attacks are expected, occurring in response to specific environmental triggers (such as being in a tunnel); other times, these episodes are unexpected and emerge randomly (such as when relaxing).

People with panic disorder experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks (such as withdrawing from social activities out of fear of having an attack) (APA, 2013). Since panic attacks can occur unexpectedly, they can become a cause of ongoing worry and avoidance. People with panic disorder may become so afraid of having panic attacks that they experience what are known as anticipatory attacks—essentially panicking about potential panic attacks and entering a cycle of living in fear of fear.

Panic disorder is very treatable; however, left untreated, it can significantly reduce quality of life. People with untreated panic disorder are at an increased risk for specific phobias, such as agoraphobia (a fear of leaving the house), and they often suffer from one or more additional mental-health conditions, such as depression or substance abuse.


DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
In the DSM-5, panic attacks themselves are not mental disorders; instead, they are listed as specifiers for other mental disorders, such as anxiety disorders. Panic attacks are differentiated as being either expected or unexpected; the categories from the previous DSM-IV-TR (situationally bound/cued, situationally predisposed, or unexpected/uncued) have been removed.

In order to be diagnosed with panic disorder, a person must experience unexpected, recurrent panic attacks. These panic attacks must also be accompanied by at least one month of a significant and related behavior change in relation to the attacks, a persistent concern or fear of more attacks, or a worry about the attacks’ consequences. As is the case with other anxiety disorders, the panic attacks cannot result from the physiological effects of drugs and other substances, a medical condition, or another mental disorder. While the previous version of the DSM defined panic disorder as occurring either with or without agoraphobia, the new DSM-5 lists panic disorder and agoraphobia as two distinct disorders.

III. Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

Social anxiety disorder (formerly called social phobia) is characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others (APA, 2013). As with specific phobias, social anxiety disorder is common in the United States; a little over 12% of all Americans experience social anxiety disorder during their lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005).

The heart of the anxiety in social anxiety disorder is the person’s concern that they may act in a humiliating or embarrassing way, such as appearing foolish, showing symptoms of anxiety (such as blushing), or doing or saying something that might lead to rejection (such as offending others). The kinds of social situations that may cause distress include public speaking, having a conversation, meeting strangers, eating in restaurants, or using public restrooms. Although many people become anxious in social situations like public speaking, the fear, anxiety, and avoidance experienced in social anxiety disorder are highly distressing and lead to serious impairments in life.

Physical symptoms often accompanying social anxiety disorder include excessive blushing, excessive sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Stammering may be present, along with rapid speech. Panic attacks can also occur under intense fear and discomfort. Some sufferers may use alcohol or other drugs to reduce fears and inhibitions at social events. Adults with this disorder are more likely to experience lower educational attainment and lower earnings (Katzelnick et al., 2001); more likely to perform poorly at work and to be unemployed (Moitra, Beard, Weisberg, & Keller, 2011); and report greater dissatisfaction with their family lives, friends, leisure activities, and income (Stein & Kean, 2000).

When people with social anxiety disorder are unable to avoid situations that provoke anxiety, they typically perform safety behaviors: mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes. Safety behaviors can include avoiding eye contact, rehearsing sentences before speaking, talking only briefly, and not talking about oneself (Alden & Bieling, 1998). Although these behaviors are intended to prevent the person with social anxiety disorder from doing something awkward that might draw criticism, these actions often exacerbate the problem because they do not allow the individual to disconfirm their negative beliefs, often eliciting rejection and other negative reactions from others (Alden & Bieling, 1998).

One of the most well-established risk factors for developing social anxiety disorder is behavioral inhibition (Clauss & Blackford, 2012). Behavioral inhibition is thought to be an inherited trait, and it is characterized by a consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when presented with unfamiliar people or situations (Kagan, Reznick, & Snidman, 1988). A recent statistical review of studies demonstrated that behavioral inhibition was associated with a greater-than sevenfold increase in the risk of development of social anxiety disorder, indicating that behavioral inhibition is a major risk factor for the disorder (Clauss & Blackford, 2012).

IV. Specific PhobiaA person diagnosed with a specific phobia (formerly known as a “simple phobia”) experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (such as animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying) (APA, 2013). Even though people realize their level of fear and anxiety in relation to the phobic stimulus is irrational, some people with a specific phobia may go to great lengths to avoid the phobic stimulus (the object or situation that triggers the fear and anxiety). 

When confronted with the object of their phobia, a person will generally enter a state of panic and experience a wide variety of physical symptoms, such as nausea, increased heartbeat, dizziness, and sweaty palms. For this reason, many people with phobias simply avoid the object of their phobia. Such avoidance can range from not wanting to be outside in a lightning storm to being unable to even look at a picture of lightning.

There are five general categories of phobias:

• Environment phobias (e.g., fear of lightning, fear of tornadoes)
• Animal phobias (e.g., fear of snakes, fear of bears)
• Blood-injury phobias, (e.g., fear of getting a shot, fear of the sight of blood)
• Situational phobias (e.g., fear of heights, fear of public speaking)
• Other phobias not otherwise specified (e.g., fear of vomiting)

Lumen: Boundless Psychology: Anxiety Disorders

Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism

Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism (2005) is a three-hour PBS documentary film.

The End of the World Cult

End of the World Cult (2007)

Also see: Lord Our Righteousness Church

TOXO A Conversation with Robert Sapolsky

Edge Video: TOXO A Conversation with Robert Sapolsky

Depressive Disorders

Depressive Disorders
Clinical depression is characterized by pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and a loss of interest.

Major Depressive Disorder

Defining Depression
Everyone occasionally feels sad and may even characterize their mood as depressed every once in a while; however, these feelings are usually short-lived and pass within a couple of days. When you have clinical depression, it interferes with daily life and causes significant pain for both you and those who care about you. Major depressive disorder (also called major depression and clinical depression) is a mood disorder characterized by a pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and by a loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. The symptoms interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy pleasurable activities.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria
In order to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) in the DSM-5, a person must experience at least five listed symptoms over a two-week period. One of the symptoms must either be a depressed mood or an inability to experience pleasure in activities that were formerly enjoyed. The symptoms must significantly interfere with one or more areas of an individual’s life (such as work, relationships, school, etc.) and must not be directly caused by a medical condition or the use of substances.

People with depressive illnesses do not all experience the same symptoms, and the severity, frequency, and duration of symptoms vary. Common symptoms include the following:
persistent sad, anxious, or empty feelings;
feelings of hopelessness or pessimism;
feelings of guilt, worthlessness, helplessness, or self-hatred;
irritability, restlessness;
loss of interest in activities or hobbies once pleasurable, including sex;
fatigue;
difficulty concentrating;
insomnia, or excessive sleeping;
overeating, or appetite loss;
thoughts of suicide, suicide attempts;
aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems that do not ease even with treatment.

In 2013, the DSM-5 removed the bereavement clause from the diagnostic criteria of MDD. This controversial decision means those who were previously exempt from a diagnosis of MDD due to bereavement (mourning the loss of a loved one) are now candidates for the MDD diagnosis.

Etiology
Clinical depression is one of the most common mental disorders in the United States. Each year about 6.7% of U.S. adults experience major depressive disorder. Women are 70% more likely than men to experience depression during their lifetime, and non-Hispanic blacks are 40% less likely than non-Hispanic whites. The average age of onset is 32 years old. Additionally, 3.3% of 13 to 18 year olds have experienced a seriously debilitating depressive disorder.

Causes of depression can be broken up into three categories: precipitating causes, perpetuating causes, and predisposing causes.

• A precipitating cause describes an immediate trigger that instigates a person’s action or behavior. This includes acute physical stresses such as diseases or infections, psychological stresses such as bereavement, and social stresses such as work problems or a significant change in social status or living conditions.
• A perpetuating cause is one that worsens an individual’s current condition and can be said to push someone “over the edge” into depression. This may include physical inactivity, emotional disorders, ongoing psychological or social stresses, and abnormalities of sleep.
• A predisposing cause typically describes an individual’s history, both genetic and environmental. For instance, being female and growing up in a lower socioeconomic status are both predisposing factors for depression. The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood.

Treatment
The three most common treatments for depression are psychotherapy, medication, and electroconvulsive therapy. Currently, the most effective form of psychotherapy for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which teaches clients to challenge self-defeating but enduring ways of thinking (cognitions) and change counter-productive behaviors. Antidepressants (usually SSRIs) have been shown to cause significant improvement in the mood of those with very severe depression. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure whereby pulses of electricity are sent through the brain via two electrodes; studies have found it to be very effective in treating severe forms of depression that have not responded to medication or therapy.

Persistent Depressive Disorder
Diagnosis requires that a person experience depressed moods most of the day nearly every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major depressive disorder. People with persistent depressive disorder are chronically sad and melancholy but do not meet all the criteria for major depression. However, episodes of full-blown major depressive disorder can occur during persistent depressive disorder (APA, 2013). The etiology and treatment of persistent depressive disorders is much the same as that of MDD.

Lumen: Depressive Disorders